Timeline
adapted from http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~ekondrat/Octavian2.html
63 BC, September 23: Octavian born, at
Rome to Gaius Octavius and Atia, niece of Julius Caesar;
received early training in private life from his great uncle
(Julius Caesar) (Suet. Aug. 5, 6, 94)
60 BC: First Triumvirate of Pompey, Crassus and Caesar
53 BC: Crassus killed and his army wiped out at Carrhae
ca. 50 BC: Funeral Oration for his grandmother Julia
49 BC: Caesar crosses the Rubicon, marches on Italy ; Pompey
and the Senate flee to Greece
48 BC:
- Battle of Pharsalus; Caesar victorious; Pompey flees
to Egypt where he is murdered.
- October 18: Toga virilis (ceremony:
legally enters into manhood)
45 BC: In Spain with Julius Caesar: Battle
of Munda; later at Apollonia to study and await Caesar's
expedition to Parthia
44 BC:
- March 15: Assassination of Caesar;
Octavian named his principal heir and adopted by Caesar
in his will.
- March 17, 44 BC : The
Senate, unable to take a consistent stand after Caesar's
assassination, decreed that the assassins were to be immune
from punishment but that Caesar's acts as head of state,
including his will, were to be ratified, and he was to
have a public funeral. At the funeral (March 20), Brutus
spoke first; however, when Antony spoke, reading the conditions
of Caesar's will (leaving 300,000 sesterces to each Roman
citizen and his magnificent gardens to the people as a
public park), the mob was so inflamed that Caesar's body
was burned then and there in the Forum and riots began
against the conspirators. Within a month, the conspirators
had left the city for the East because of their unpopularity
in Rome . Led by Brutus and Cassius, they began to raise
money and an army in Greece , allying with Sextus Pompey,
now a pirate chief
- April 18: At Naples
- April 19: Meeting with Cicero and
Balbus (Cic. Att. 14.10); then goes to Puteoli
(Philippus' villa), then Cumae ( Cicero 's Villa)
- Early May: In Rome , meets with Antony
in Horti Pompei (Pompey's Gardens); Caesar's nineteen-year-old
great-nephew, Gaius Octavius Thurinus, entered Rome to
claim his inheritance. Caesar's will had named him chief
heir and adopted him as his son, making his name now Gaius
Julius Caesar Octavianus (so modern historians usually
call him Octavian until he received the title Augustus
in 27 BC). His claim was not well received by Antony ,
but after many machinations on both sides they eventually
reconciled, at least on the surface. They eventually come
to blows.
43 BC:
- April 14: Battle at Forum Gallorum
(Antonius Defeated)
- April 14-27: Octavian, invested with
propraetorian imperium, leads legions in battle at Mutina,
along with consuls Hirtius and Pansa
- April 21: Antonius Defeated
- May 24: Antonius and Lepidus join
forces
- August 19: Octavian and his cousin
(Caesar's nephew) Quintus Pedius become suffect consuls;
Octavian recognized as Julius Caesar's adoptive son under
name Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus
- October: Octavian meets with Antony
and Lepidus at island of Reni (Near Bononia)
- November 27: Second Triumvirate Octavian,
Antony, and Lepidus formed an official three-man government,
called “the second triumvirate”; in order to
silence opposition and raise money, they carried out bloody
proscriptions, executing significant numbers of senators
and equestrians, including the great orator Cicero, against
whom Antony was particularly vindictive.
- The proscriptions:
130+ senators (Livy)
200 senators + 2000 equites (Appian)
300 senators + 3000 equites (Plutarch)
Only one ex-consul known (Cicero), out of nearly 100 known names
42 BC:
- January 1: Julius Caesar is proclaimed
a god (due to a comet that appeared at games in his honor
in 44); Octavian becomes "son of a god", divi
filius
- Spring – Winter: Preparations
for the campaign against the forces of Brutus and Cassius,
the 'Liberators'
- October 23: Antony and Octavian, leading
19-20 legions, met the 19 legions of Brutus and Cassius
at Philippi in Greece . In the first battle, Antony 's
forces defeated Cassius's troops, but Brutus's forces defeated
those of Octavian. Cassius, not knowing about Brutus's
success, committed suicide. Brutus did not follow up his
advantage immediately, however, and a second battle was
fought three weeks later, with Brutus facing the combined
forces of Antony and Octavian. When Brutus was defeated,
he also committed suicide, marking the ultimate end of
the Republican cause.
- After the victory at Philippi , Octavian returned to
Rome , but Antony left on a triumphal tour through Greece
and the East; he planned to organize and supply an army
to invade Parthia , the military campaign Caesar was preparing
before he was assassinated.
41/40 BC: Antony ordered Cleopatra to
meet him in Tarsus to answer a charge that she had secretly
aided Cassius before Philippi (probably a pretext to get
Egyptian aid for his Parthian campaign). She sailed to Tarsus
on a magnificent barge, dressed as the goddess Venus in a
tableau, and utterly captivated him, especially by catering
to his taste for banquets and carousing. He soon followed
her back to Alexandria , delaying his Parthian campaign,
and ignoring the fact that his wife, Fulvia, and his brother,
Lucius, were trying to maintain his influence in Italy against
the growing power of Octavian.
40 BC: The situation in Italy was deteriorating
and a new civil war seemed imminent, so Antony returned to
Italy . Fulvia died before he got back, and Octavian and
Antony agreed to blame their disagreements on her. They concluded
a pact at Brundisium in which they agreed that Octavian would
be supreme in the West ( Italy , Europe ) and Antony in the
East ( Greece , Asia , Egypt ); the pact was sealed by the
marriage of Antony to Octavia, Octavian's sister, who had
been recently widowed. Antony and Octavia lived in Athens
from 40-37, and she bore him two daughters, both named Antonia.
39 BC: Treaty of Tarentum: Antony and
Octavian cede Sicily , Sardinia and Corsica to Sextus Pompey
as a "Protectorate." Octavian marries Scribonia,
a relative of Sextus Pompey, with whom he has one daughter,
Julia.
38 BC: Octavian fights two indecisive sea battles with Sextus
Pompey and loses his fleets in storms; divorces Scribonia upon the birth
of Julia and marries Livia. The Triumvirate's mandate runs out.
37 BC: Triumvirate renewed for 5 more years. Agrippa trains
a new fleet near Naples . Antony finally departed for his Parthian campaign,
but en route he met Cleopatra in Syria , and she presented him with the twins
she had borne him after he left for Brundisium; he acknowledged the children,
naming the boy Alexander Helios and the girl Cleopatra Selene. Antony married
Cleopatra according to the Egyptian ceremony, and she conceived another child,
later named Ptolemy Philadelphus. The Parthian campaign was an unmitigated
disaster, with no military gains and the loss of an estimated 20,000 men.
When Octavia returned from Rome to Athens to meet her husband with gifts
and supplies, he ostentatiously bypassed her and Greece (which was a direct
and public insult to his wife), traveling directly to Alexandria and Cleopatra.
36 BC: Octavian, with the help of Agrippa
and Lepidus, defeats Sextus Pompey at Naulochus in Sicily
; Lepidus attempts to take over Sicily , but instead loses
his position as Triumvir, his army and his navy and is sent
into exile. Octavian now has more military resources than
Antony . East and West are now in complete control of two
men.
34 BC: Antony breaks with Rome and Octavian for good. He
holds a "triumph" in Alexandria to celebrate his "victory" in
Armenia . Officially divorces Octavian's sister Octavia. Donations
of Alexandria : Antony divides much of Rome 's
eastern empire among Cleopatra's children (3 of whom are his as well) and
declares Octavian a usurper of Caesar's rightful heir, Caesarion, son of
Caesar and Cleopatra.
33 BC: Triumvirate runs out again; Octavian campaigning
in Illyria
32 BC: The "war of words" between Antony and Octavian;
Octavian reads Antony 's will (which again declares Caesarion as Caesar's
lawful heir) in the Senate. The west, alarmed at Antony 's apparent prediliction
for the East and willingness to advance the interests of Cleopatra over Rome
's, officially declares war on Egypt and demands Octavian (who currently
holds no magisterial office) as "Dux" or leader of the war effort.
- Antony made the “Donations of Alexandria,” giving
away many territories of the Roman East to Cleopatra and
her children, declaring Caesarion Caesar's legal heir,
and formally divorcing Octavia, sending an official notice
to Rome that she and his children were to leave his house.
These actions were very unpopular in Rome , and the Senate, “of
its own accord,” swore an extraordinary oath of loyalty
to Octavian.
31 BC: The Senate outlawed Antony and
declared war on Cleopatra.
- September 2: Octavian (now consul
for the third time) and Agrippa are victorious over Antony
and Cleopatra at Actium . The climactic battle occurred
at sea, off the promontory of Actium in Greece . Octavian's
general was the shrewd Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, and Antony
was hampered by defections among his officers and the presence
of Cleopatra on her flagship, which his Roman soldiers
deeply resented. Agrippa easily outmaneuvered Antony ,
and Cleopatra was the first to flee, taking her sixty Egyptian
ships with her. Antony followed her in a single ship, leaving
the rest of his fleet to be destroyed.
30 BC: After plans to regroup their forces
in Alexandria failed, since most of Antony 's remaining soldiers
deserted to join Octavian, Antony committed suicide with
his own sword. The circumstances surrounding his death are
not certain, but several versions state that Cleopatra sent
him a message that she had killed herself; when he then stabbed
himself, she had him raised to her in the her tower, and
he died in her arms. In any case, it is definite that she
lived for some weeks after Antony 's death and met Octavian
on at least one occasion. Malicious sources report that she
was trying to seduce Octavian also, but it is more probable
that she was attempting to secure the best possible situation
for her children. When she realized that Octavian was determined
to parade her as his captive in his triumphal parade in Rome,
she tricked him into believing that she would do this, and
then had an asp smuggled in to her and died of its bite (or
perhaps she took poison), along with two of her serving women.
29 BC, August 13-15: Octavian celebrates
a triple triumph at Rome ( Illyria , Actium and Alexandria
) on three successive days; he attributes the success to
Apollo. The influx of money and booty causes a sharp decreas
in interest rates, making Octavian more popular than ever.
28 BC: Octavian dedicates a temple to Apollo on the Palatine
Hill, Rome (next to his home).
27 BC: Octavian formally “handed over” his power
to the Senate, which then “voluntarily” gave it back to him in
a new legal form, officially declaring him the princeps (leading
citizen), instead of dictator, king, or triumvir; he was henceforth called Augustus (“the
revered one”). In effect, absolute power was in Augustus's hands, but
this was concealed by his use of the old governmental forms; although Augustus's
rule is often termed a principate, he was actually the first of the Roman
emperors, and the beginning of the Roman Empire is officially dated at 27
BC.
The Ascent of Caesar's Nephew, Octavian
A month after Caesar's death, his eighteen year-old grand-nephew,
Gaius Octavianus, to be known as Octavian, arrived in Italy
from the East, where he had been waiting to serve Caesar
in the war that was planned against the Parthians. Octavian
had served with Caesar in Spain , and Caesar had adopted
him and made him his heir. Against the advice of his stepfather
and others, Octavian decided to use his inheritance politically.
Like many who have inherited wealth or position from a brilliant
man, Octavian would prove less capable, but he was determined,
and he would prove able enough in his coming competition
with Mark Antony. Antony considered himself Caesar's political
heir. He controlled Caesar's private fortune, which he had
quickly spent. When Octavian went to Antony to claim his
share of Caesar's estate, Antony rebuffed him in a public
display of contempt.
With what money Octavian had, and help from friends, family
and supporters, Octavian was able to make himself a public
figure. He paid the gift of money that Caesar had promised
citizens in his will -- which Antony was refusing to pay.
He paid for athletic games in honor of Caesar, and at these
games a comet streaked across the sky. The crowd thought
it was Caesar's star, a sign of Caesar's immortality, a sign
of Caesar having risen, and a sign of heavenly favor bestowed
upon Octavian. News of Caesar's star spread rapidly across
the empire. And Octavian inherited the affection of soldiers
and civilians who had worshiped Caesar. Many of Caesar's
veterans gathered around Octavian and proclaimed their devotion
to him, and war between Octavian and Antony appeared imminent.
Antony against the Senate
The accord between Antony and the Senate fell apart. As
consul, Antony canceled the Senate's appointment of one of
Caesar's assassins, Decimus Brutus (no relation to Marcus
Brutus), to the governorship of Cisalpine Gaul . With his
position as consul soon to expire, Antony appointed himself
to the position. Still conciliatory, the Senate approved.
But Cicero feared Antony 's influence. He made a speech with
an undertone of criticism against Antony . Antony took offense
and attacked Cicero verbally. And before the year ended a
war of words was on between the two. Antony and Cicero disliked
each other personally. Antony was affable but thought good
manners were hypocritical and stuffy, and stuffy was what
he though of Cicero . Antony saw himself as in tune with
traditional male directness and simplicity. In manner and
dress he was intentionally casual, and he had a coarseness
and boyishness that appealed to soldiers. Some complained
that he was sloppy in eating and noisy in drinking. Cicero
described him as vulgar and as a drunken, lusting debaucher,
and Cicero spoke of Antony 's speeches as little more than
bombast.
Cicero saw Antony 's choosing to go to Cisalpine Gaul as
governor as an attempt to follow in the footsteps of Caesar,
and he accused Antony of preparing to create a military dictatorship.
Cicero decided that it best to keep Antony and Octavian divided,
to exploit their differences and to help Octavian against
Antony . The Senate refused Antony 's attempt to have it
declare Octavian a public enemy. Instead, the Senate made
Octavian a senator, annulled its appointment of Antony as
governor of Cisalpine Gaul and declared Antony an outlaw.
Antony did now what he could have done just after the assassination: he
rallied an army against Caesar's assassins. The first of
his targets was his rival in Cisalpine Gaul : Decimus
Brutus. Cicero called on the governors in Spain , Transalpine
Gaul and Narbonensis Gaul, to side with the Senate. But these
commanders chose instead to side with Antony . The commander
in Narbonensis Gaul -- Lepidus -- had Caesar's best troops,
and Antony agreed to recognize him as equal in rank.
Octavian, Antony and
Lepidus End the Republic
Octavian was uncomfortable allied with the Senate, and
he saw opportunity in overthrowing those responsible for
his uncle's assassination. He signaled Antony that he was
willing to create an alliance against those they both opposed.
Some were to claim that Octavian and Antony agreed that they
had better hang together or they might eventually hang separately.
While Antony was winning his war against Decimus Brutus,
Octavian and his troops marched on Rome , entering the city
unopposed. There, Octavian took charge and in effect annulled
the powers of the Senate. He instituted elections for the
two consulships, winning one seat for himself and one for
a second cousin, and he abolished the law that had made Antony
an outlaw. A victorious Antony returned to Rome with his
army. Lepidus, Antony and Octavian formed a ruling triumvirate.
The triumvirate enlarged the Senate with their supporters.
The Plebeian Assembly passed a law giving the triumvirate
dictatorial powers for five years.
Octavian and Antony chose not to repeat Caesar's attempt
at reconciliation. Against those who had conspired against
Caesar they launched a massacre as terrible as Sulla's. Three
hundred former senators and two thousand equites were killed,
destroying much of what had been Rome 's old governing elite.
Cicero was among those assassinated -- his severed head and
hands presented to Antony . Caesar was declared a god of
the Roman state. The two most prominent of Caesar's assassins,
Cassius and Marcus Brutus, had fled east and taken command
of armies there, and, in the year 42, armies under the combined
command of Antony and Octavian waged war against them in
Macedonia, Antony performing well as a general and Octavian,
who lacked such skills, remaining in his tent. Brutus and
Cassius committed suicide. An enemy navy, led by the son
of Pompey, Sextus Pompeius, remained undefeated.
Octavian Rules as Emperor Augustus
Immediately after returning to Rome in 29 BC, Octavian
fortified support for himself by giving some of the wealth
from Egypt to the troops who had fought for him. He gave
them land in Italy and abroad, and some of Egypt 's treasure
he gave as prizes to the people of Rome . Thirty years had
passed since Rome 's republican government had functioned
normally, and Octavian considered what the nature of his
rule was to be. He theorized that a republic was better than
a monarchy, that the sons of kings often became incompetent
rulers. He believed that Rome 's republican government had
helped make Rome great, but he also believed that it had
produced chaos. He decided that although the republic was
suited to Rome when Rome was small, it was inadequate in
meeting Rome 's task as the leader of the world's greatest
empire. He believed that democracy could not achieve the
political stability that the Senate had failed to achieve,
and therefore he remained opposed to giving more power to
the Plebeian Assembly. He decided also that clinging to absolute
power would appear evil. He did not wish to appear to be
the autocrat that Caesar had appeared to be, and he recalled
that after having won against Sextus Pompeius in 36 he had
promised that he would restore the republic.
Octavian and his trusted aide, Agrippa, were the two consuls,
and Octavian used his powers as a consul to make the Senate
more to his liking. Building on the purge of 43, in which
about three hundred senators had been eliminated, Octavian
purged two hundred more, and in their place he added some
whom he had elevated to the rank of nobility, and the Senate
became a body of eight hundred.
In 27 BC, Octavian began his seventh term as consul, and
on the first day of that year he renounced his consulship
and declared that he was surrendering all powers to the Senate
and other bodies, including control of the army. It was a
bogus withdrawal from power. As Octavian expected, the Senate,
packed with his supporters, responded by returning much of
his power, claiming that it was doing so for the sake of
unity and relief from factionalism and civil strife. The
Senate granted Octavian a ten-year governorship over those
areas where the bulk of Rome 's armies were stationed: Spain
, Gaul and Syria . This gave Octavian control over foreign
policy, and it left him with authority over Rome 's military.
The Senate voted that Octavian be given the crown of oak
leaves that signified service to Rome , and it made him consul
again. From the period of the Second Triumvirate, Octavian
still held the title of princeps, which could be
translated as leader, or, in German, führer.
In keeping with his great prestige, the Senate gave him a
title that had the ring of his being divinely chosen, Augustus
Caesar, and the Senate made it law that he be included
in the prayers of Rome's priests. In appearance the Republic
had been restored, but in fact ultimate power still lay with
Octavian -- Augustus Caesar.
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